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Lexical diffusion

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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr">Lexical diffusion is the hypothesis that a <a href="Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound change</a> is an abrupt change that spreads gradually across the words in a language to which it is applicable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2008145-1">[1]</a>

It contrasts with the <a href="Neogrammarian" title="Neogrammarian">Neogrammarian</a> view that a sound change results from phonetically-conditioned articulatory drift acting uniformly on all applicable words, which implies that sound changes are regular, with exceptions attributed to analogy and dialect borrowing.

Similar views were expressed by Romance <a href="Dialectologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectologist">dialectologists</a> in the late 19th century but were reformulated and renamed by William Wang and coworkers studying <a href="Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a> in the 1960s and the 1970s.

<a href="William_Labov" title="William Labov">William Labov</a> found evidence for both processes but argued that they operate at different levels.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neogrammarians">Neogrammarians</h2></div>

A key assumption of <a href="Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguistics</a> is that <a href="Sound_change" title="Sound change">sound change</a> is regular. The principle was summarized by the <a href="Neogrammarian" title="Neogrammarian">Neogrammarians</a> in the late 19th century in the slogan "sound laws suffer no exceptions" and forms the basis of the <a href="Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> of reconstruction and the <a href="Tree_model" title="Tree model">tree model</a> of linguistic evolution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell201315,_188-3">[3]</a>

Inspired by the <a href="Uniformitarian_Principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformitarian Principle">Uniformitarian Principle</a> of geology, Neogrammarians such as <a href="Hermann_Paul" title="Hermann Paul">Hermann Paul</a> described regularity as a consequence of the operation of sound change as an imperceptible articulatory drift conditioned by the phonetic environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov199421–23-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiparsky19821-5">[5]</a> <a href="Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Leonard Bloomfield</a> later summarized this view:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloomfield1933353-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994441-7">[7]</a>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">sound change is merely a change in the speaker's manner of producing phonemes and accordingly affects a phoneme at every occurrence, regardless of the nature of any particular linguistic form in which the phoneme happens to occur.</blockquote>

He summarized the mechanism as "phonemes change".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloomfield1933354-8">[8]</a>

Despite the unequivocal form in which these slogans are often quoted, the Neogrammarians admitted two exceptions to regular sound change: analogy and dialect borrowing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994440-9">[9]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialectologists">Dialectologists</h2></div>

Uniform sound change was first challenged by <a href="Hugo_Schuchardt" title="Hugo Schuchardt">Hugo Schuchardt</a>, a <a href="Dialectologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectologist">dialectologist</a> of <a href="Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, who wrote in his criticism of the Neogrammarians:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuchardt188525-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillips2015361-11">[11]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">Rarely-used words lag behind; very frequently used ones rush ahead. Exceptions to the sound laws are thus formed on both sides.</blockquote>

Dialectologists studying the Romance languages found many apparent exceptions to uniformity, as reflected in their slogan, chaque mot a son histoire ('every word has its own history'). This is commonly ascribed to <a href="Jules_Gilli%C3%A9ron" title="Jules Gilliéron">Jules Gilliéron</a> but also originated with Schuchardt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell2013188-12">[12]</a>

An example is the shortening of English 'u' (the <a href="Foot-strut_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot-strut split">foot-strut split</a>), resulting in different vowels in the words cut and put.

When the <a href="Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isogloss</a> defining this feature in England is examined closely, it emerges that individual words are moving from /ʊ/ to /ʌ/ over time, and individual speakers fluctuate in their pronunciation of the same words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill1998106–113-13">[13]</a>

Some sound changes, such as <a href="Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a> or <a href="Haplology" title="Haplology">haplology</a>, are inherently discontinuous and hence incompatible with gradual, imperceptible change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994539-14">[14]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wang's_reformulation">Wang's reformulation</h2></div>

In 1962, <a href="Peking_University" title="Peking University">Peking University</a> published the Hanyu Fangyin Zihui, containing transcriptions of 2444 morphemes in 17 modern <a href="Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994424-16">[16]</a>

The DOC project at the <a href="University_of_California%2C_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, headed by William Wang, attempted to apply the <a href="Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> to a computerized form of this data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreeter1972-17">[17]</a>

However, the Chinese data revealed pervasive irregularities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994424-16">[16]</a>

For example, <a href="Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a> words in the third tone class (the "departing" tone) with voiced initials have two reflexes in the modern <a href="Teochew_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Teochew dialect">Teochew dialect</a>, but no phonetic factor has been found to condition the split.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChengWang1977-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994425–426-19">[19]</a>

Cheng and Wang list 12 pairs of words that were homophonous in Middle Chinese but have different modern pronunciations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChengWang197797-20">[20]</a>

Similar examples were found on other Chinese varieties and other language families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994426–428-21">[21]</a>

Wang accounted for such irregularities by positing a form of lexical diffusion:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977150-22">[22]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">we hold that words change their pronunciations by discrete, perceptible increments (i.e. phonetically abrupt), but severally at a time (i.e. lexically gradual) rather than always in a homogeneous block.</blockquote>

In his view, a sound change would be regular if the change had completed its progress through the lexicon, but irregularity would be seen if the change were still incomplete or if it were interrupted by another change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang19699-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977151-24">[24]</a>

Other linguists responded that the explanation of the irregularities should be sought in dialect mixture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEgerod1982-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1982-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazaudonLowe1993-27">[27]</a>

Indeed, Wang and Lien discovered that the Teochew phenomenon was the result of borrowing from the local <a href="Literary_and_colloquial_readings_of_Chinese_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters">literary reading</a> tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994451-28">[28]</a>

They present a revised model that distinguishes between the initial "actuation" of a sound change by <a href="Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a> or internal factors, and its "implementation" by lexical diffusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangLien1993382-29">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evaluation">Evaluation</h2></div>

Labov found evidence for both processes, but argued that they operate at different levels:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994542–543-30">[30]</a>

<ul><li>Regular sound change occurs when the phonetic realization of a <a href="Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> varies gradually and continuously. The process affects all words containing the phoneme uniformly. Examples include <a href="Vowel_shift" title="Vowel shift">vowel shifts</a> and <a href="Diphthongization" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongization">diphthongization</a>, weakening of <a href="Semivowel" title="Semivowel">glides</a> and unstressed vowels, <a href="L-vocalization" title="L-vocalization">vocalization of liquids</a>, and changes in the <a href="Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a> of consonants.</li>

<li>Lexical diffusion represents a change in the phonemes in a word (substitution, <a href="Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a>, <a href="Elision" title="Elision">elision</a>, <a href="Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthesis</a>). It is abrupt and applies to words selected by lexical, grammatical or social criteria.</li></ul>

<a href="Paul_Kiparsky" title="Paul Kiparsky">Paul Kiparsky</a> argues that under a proper definition of analogy as optimization, lexical diffusion is a non-proportional type of analogy similar to <a href="Morphological_leveling" title="Morphological leveling">leveling</a>, rather than a type of sound change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiparsky1996-31">[31]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrystal2008145-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrystal2008145_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrystal2008">Crystal (2008)</a>, p. 145.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977149Fig._1-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977149Fig._1_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWangCheng1977">Wang & Cheng (1977)</a>, p. 149, Fig. 1.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell201315,_188-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell201315,_188_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell2013">Campbell (2013)</a>, pp. 15, 188.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov199421–23-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov199421–23_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabov1994">Labov (1994)</a>, pp. 21–23.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiparsky19821-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiparsky19821_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKiparsky1982">Kiparsky (1982)</a>, p. 1.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloomfield1933353-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloomfield1933353_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBloomfield1933">Bloomfield (1933)</a>, p. 353.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994441-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov1994441_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabov1994">Labov (1994)</a>, p. 441.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloomfield1933354-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBloomfield1933354_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBloomfield1933">Bloomfield (1933)</a>, p. 354.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994440-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov1994440_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabov1994">Labov (1994)</a>, p. 440.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuchardt188525-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuchardt188525_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchuchardt1885">Schuchardt (1885)</a>, p. 25.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillips2015361-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillips2015361_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPhillips2015">Phillips (2015)</a>, p. 361.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECampbell2013188-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECampbell2013188_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell2013">Campbell (2013)</a>, p. 188.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill1998106–113-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambersTrudgill1998106–113_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998">Chambers & Trudgill (1998)</a>, pp. 106–113.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994539-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov1994539_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabov1994">Labov (1994)</a>, p. 539.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977154Fig._4-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977154Fig._4_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWangCheng1977">Wang & Cheng (1977)</a>, p. 154, Fig. 4.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994424-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov1994424_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov1994424_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabov1994">Labov (1994)</a>, p. 424.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreeter1972-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreeter1972_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStreeter1972">Streeter (1972)</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChengWang1977-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChengWang1977_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChengWang1977">Cheng & Wang (1977)</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994425–426-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov1994425–426_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabov1994">Labov (1994)</a>, pp. 425–426.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChengWang197797-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChengWang197797_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChengWang1977">Cheng & Wang (1977)</a>, p. 97.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994426–428-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov1994426–428_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabov1994">Labov (1994)</a>, pp. 426–428.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977150-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977150_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWangCheng1977">Wang & Cheng (1977)</a>, p. 150.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang19699-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang19699_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWang1969">Wang (1969)</a>, p. 9.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977151-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangCheng1977151_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWangCheng1977">Wang & Cheng (1977)</a>, p. 151.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEgerod1982-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEgerod1982_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEgerod1982">Egerod (1982)</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1982-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPulleyblank1982_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPulleyblank1982">Pulleyblank (1982)</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazaudonLowe1993-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMazaudonLowe1993_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMazaudonLowe1993">Mazaudon & Lowe (1993)</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994451-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov1994451_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabov1994">Labov (1994)</a>, p. 451.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWangLien1993382-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWangLien1993382_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWangLien1993">Wang & Lien (1993)</a>, p. 382.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabov1994542–543-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabov1994542–543_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabov1994">Labov (1994)</a>, pp. 542–543.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiparsky1996-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiparsky1996_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKiparsky1996">Kiparsky (1996)</a>.

</li>

</ol></div>

Works cited

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</style><cite id="CITEREFBloomfield1933" class="citation cs2"><a href="Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield, Leonard</a> (1933), Language, New York: Henry Holt, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-226-06067-5</bdi>.</cite> <code class="cs1-code">{{citation}}</code>: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Campbell, Lyle</a> (2013), Historical Linguistics: An Introduction (3rd ed.), Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7486-4601-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFChambersTrudgill1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="Jack_Chambers_(linguist)" title="Jack Chambers (linguist)">Chambers, J. K.</a>; <a href="Peter_Trudgill" title="Peter Trudgill">Trudgill, Peter</a> (1998), Dialectology (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-59646-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFChengWang1977" class="citation cs2">Cheng, Chin-Chuan; <a href="William_S-Y._Wang" class="mw-redirect" title="William S-Y. Wang">Wang, William S-Y.</a> (1977), "Tone change in Chao-zhou Chinese: a study in lexical diffusion", in Wang, William S-Y. (ed.), The Lexicon in Phonological Change, Monographs on Linguistic Analysis, vol. 5, Mouton De Gruyter, pp. 86–100, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-177423-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCrystal2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="David_Crystal" title="David Crystal">Crystal, David</a> (2008), A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (6th ed.), Blackwell, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4051-5296-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEgerod1982" class="citation cs2">Egerod, Søren (1982), "How not to split tones – the Chaozhou case", Fangyan, 3: 169–173.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKiparsky1982" class="citation cs2"><a href="Paul_Kiparsky" title="Paul Kiparsky">Kiparsky, Paul</a> (1982), Explanation in phonology, Foris, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-70176-37-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKiparsky1996" class="citation cs2">——— (1996), "The phonological basis of sound change", in Goldsmith, John A. (ed.), The Handbook of Phonological Theory, Blackwell, pp. 640–670, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-631-18062-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLabov1994" class="citation cs2"><a href="William_Labov" title="William Labov">Labov, William</a> (1994), Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-631-17913-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMazaudonLowe1993" class="citation cs2">Mazaudon, Martine; Lowe, John B. (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01363794">"Regularity and Exceptions in Sound Change"</a>, in Domenici, Marc; Demolin, Didier (eds.), Annual Conference of the Linguistic Society of Belgium, Brussels, pp. 1–25.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{citation}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2015" class="citation cs2">Phillips, Betty S. (2015), "Lexical Diffusion in Historical Phonology", in Honeybone, Patrick; Salmons, Joseph (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Historical Phonology, Oxford University Press, pp. 359–373, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-923281-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPulleyblank1982" class="citation cs2"><a href="Edwin_G._Pulleyblank" title="Edwin G. Pulleyblank">Pulleyblank, Edwin G.</a> (1982), "The Lexicon in Phonological Change. Monographs on Linguistic Analysis, no. 5 by William S-Y Wang", Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 10 (2): 392–416, <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23767018">23767018</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchuchardt1885" class="citation cs2"><a href="Hugo_Schuchardt" title="Hugo Schuchardt">Schuchardt, Hugo</a> (1885), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deutschestextarchiv.de/schuchardt_lautgesetze_1885">Ueber die Lautgesetze – Gegen die Junggrammatiker</a>, Berlin: Oppenheim.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFStreeter1972" class="citation cs2">Streeter, Mary L. (1972), "DOC, 1971: A Chinese Dialect Dictionary on Computer", Computers and the Humanities, 6 (5): 259–270, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02404242">10.1007/BF02404242</a>, <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30199498">30199498</a>, <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62249218">62249218</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWang1969" class="citation cs2">Wang, William S-Y. (1969), "Competing Changes as a Cause of Residue", Language, 45 (1): 9–25, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411748">10.2307/411748</a>, <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/411748">411748</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWangCheng1977" class="citation cs2">Wang, William S-Y.; Cheng, Chin-Chuan (1977), "Implementation of phonological change: the Shuāng-Fēng Chinese case", in Wang, William S-Y. (ed.), The Lexicon in Phonological Change, Monographs on Linguistic Analysis, vol. 5, Mouton De Gruyter, pp. 148–158, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-177423-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWangLien1993" class="citation cs2">Wang, William S-Y.; Lien, Chinfa (1993), "Bidirectional diffusion in sound change", in Jones, Charles (ed.), Historical Linguistics: Problems and Perspectives, London: Longman, pp. 345–400, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-582-06085-2</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation cs2">Phillips, Betty (2006), Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion, New York: Palgrave MacMillan, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4039-3232-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation cs2">Wang, William S-Y., ed. (1977), The Lexicon in Phonological Change, Monographs on Linguistic Analysis, vol. 5, Mouton De Gruyter, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-11-177423-7</bdi>.</cite>

<ul><li><cite class="citation cs2">Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (1981), "The lexicon in phonological change Edited by William S-Y. Wang (review)", Language, 57 (1): 183–191, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flan.1981.0053">10.1353/lan.1981.0053</a>, <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/414291">414291</a>, <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142237599">142237599</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation cs2">Walker, Douglas C. (1979), "The lexicon in phonological change: W.S.Y. Wang, Mouton, The Hague, 1977 Monographs on Linguistic Analysis 5. 278 pp. 112 DM", Lingua, 49 (4): 361–363, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0024-3841%2879%2990050-0">10.1016/0024-3841(79)90050-0</a>.</cite></li></ul></li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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